The Failure of Revolution: 1820–21 and the Early 1830s

Nationalism, Moderates and Radicals in the 1830s and 1840s

The Causes and Failure of the 1848-9 Revolutions

Italy in the 1850s: the Rise of Piedmont and the Conquest of Lombardy

1859-61: Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Creation of the Kingdom of Italy

Public Responses to Unification

Venetia, 1866

Rome, 1870

The Legacy of Italian Unification

What was Germany like in 1871?

How important was the growth of national identities to unification?

How did the authorities react to 1848?

What role did international circumstances play in the formation of a German nation state?

What role did individuals and the military play in the formation of a German nation state?

The Restoration of the Old Order

The 1848 Revolutions

The Emergence of a National Consciousness

The Role of Garibaldi

Conclusion: United at Last?